There are many potential causes of a flat tire. The most common is a nail or other sharp object lying in the road which punctures the tread as you drive over it. However, damage to the valve stem, vandalism, and even a traffic collision can also cause your wheel to lose most of its air. If your treads are severely worn, even relatively blunt objects can puncture them.

If you’re fortunate enough to have run-flat tires installed on your vehicle, you’ll be able to drive to an auto repair shop to have the damaged tire replaced. Otherwise, you may be forced to do the work yourself. Below, I’ll take you through the process of changing a flat tire.

First Step: The Jack

Your car should have a spare and a jack in the trunk. Many pick-up trucks and SUVs have them installed underneath the frame. Once you have retrieved them, make sure your vehicle is in “Park” and the emergency brake has been set. Before raising your car, loosen each of the lugs on the offending wheel (turn them counterclockwise). Don’t remove them; simply loosen them.

Next, place the jack under a sturdy portion of the frame and raise your car. If you’re not sure whether a particular area has enough strength, check your owner’s manual. One important note of caution: do not do this if you’re parked on an incline. Your automobile can easily move as you’re raising it.

Second Step: The Lugs

Once your car has been raised with sufficient room to take off the flat tire, you’ll need to remove the loosened lugs. Make sure that you place them in a secure area to avoid losing them. Even though each wheel has several lugs, it is unsafe to drive if even one of them is missing.

Third Step: The Replacement

Removing the offending wheel is easy with the lugs not holding it in place. Simply slide it off the supporting studs. The difficult part is aligning the replacement (the spare) on the studs. Wheels are heavy. You may find yourself struggling to lift the spare while trying to fit the studs through the right holes.

Once you have fit the studs through the holes in the spare, you’ll need to replace the lugs in order to secure the wheel. Turn each lug carefully to avoid threading issues. Also, consider replacing them in a star pattern. That is, replace the top lug first and then replace one of the bottom lugs.

After you have tightened the lugs by hand, lower your car and remove the jack. Then, tighten the lugs securely with your tire iron while your vehicle is resting on the ground. Again, follow a star pattern beginning with the topmost lug.

Keep in mind, most spares can only be driven for a limited number of miles at a reduced speed. But, even though they’re not true replacements, they’ll help you get your car back on the road to the nearest auto garage.

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Auto Gas mileage is the miles your car will run for each gallon of gas. Let’s find your car’s gas mileage. Gas Mileage Tracker can print out MPG reports sorted by car or by date on the fill ups. A blank report can be printed to be used as a form to fill out any MPG fuel data by hand while you are at the gas station. Gas mileage depends on engine of vehicle i.e.

Gas mileage has gone up. Surging and then coasting conflicts with several laws of physics. Auto Gas Mileage Tracker is a MPG program designed to help you understand and track your gas mileage and gasoline usage. You can track your total miles and gas mileage, your total highway miles and highway gas mileage, as well as your city miles and city gas mileage.

Car pool to work. Try not to drive during rush hour to reduce idling in traffic. Carmakers do what we tell them to do with our money . If consumers choose auto gas mileage over size, carmakers will make cars with better gas mileage. Cars must average 27.5 miles per gallon. The government’s measure overstates actual fuel economy by 18 percent, experts say.

Fuel efficiency is a sound national energy policy, economic policy and foreign policy all wrapped into one. Every increase of one mile per gallon in auto fuel efficiency yields more oil than is in two Arctic National Wildlife Refuges. Fuel economy, however, dropped across the board. In highway driving, auto gas mileage decreased from 21 to 15 mpg; in city driving, it dropped from 9 to 7 mpg. FuelEconomy.gov gives some numbers on the 2007 Hybrid SUVs, showing us that the average mpg on these cars is around 30 mpg. What this means in terms of your own pocket is that it’ll currently cost you about $40 to fill up one of these babies and you’ll be able to drive over 400 miles before filling up again.

Perhaps the biggest surprise is that the all wheel drive Subaru Forester ranks nearly as high in fuel mileage as the front wheel drive only competition. This makes it a best buy and we highly recommend it if you need the traction. Perhaps with using higher octane on these so-called “high-performance” engines we can get better mileage? Perhaps you left the car idling a long time. Maybe you did a lot of stop-and-go driving.

Hybrid owners haven’t been exempt from feeling this pinch either. In our testing, we fell way short of EPA estimates of 60 mpg city and 51 mpg highway. Hybrids combine gas engines with electric motors. You don’t need to plug your car in at night, and you get terrific mileage, averaging from 40 to 60 miles per gallon for passenger cars, such as the Toyota Prius or Honda Civic hybrid.

You can get lot of informations about improving your auto gas mileage by visiting Auto Gas Mileage

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Type of operation.
Static - development may be mechanized.

Equipment.
Radioactive isotope in storage container. Remote handling gear. Lightproof cassette. Photographic development facilities. Darkroom and illuminator for assessment.

Mode of operation.
Gamma rays, similar to X-rays but of shorter wavelength, are emitted continuously from the isotope. It cannot be ‘switched off’ so when not in use, it is kept in a heavy storage container that absorbs radiation. They pass through the work to be inspected. Parts of the work presenting less obstruction to gamma rays, such as cavities or inclusions, allow increased exposure of the film. The film is developed to form a radiograph with cavities or inclusions indicated by darker images. Section thickness increases (such as weld) appear as less dense images.

Operating parameters.
Wavelength of radiation : 0.001 - 0.015 nm
0.01 - 1 nm (1.25MeV - 80KeV)
Portability : good (except for container)
Access : good
Exposure time : 1 second - 24 hours
Thickness range : up to 250 mm
Minimum defect size : 1% of thickness

Materials.
Most weldable materials can be inspected.


Typical welding applications.
Site inspection.
Panoramic exposure for small work.

Advantages, limitations, consumables and safety as for X-ray radiograph


X-ray Radiography.

Type of operation.
Static or transportable.


Equipment.
X-ray tube. Stand and control gear. Lightproof cassette. Photographic development facilities. Dark room and illumination for assessment.


Mode of operation.
X-rays are emitted from the tube and pass through the work to be inspected. Parts of the work presenting less obstruction to X-rays, such as cavities or inclusions, allow increased exposure of the film. The film is developed to form a radiograph with cavities or inclusions indicated by darker images. Section thickness increases (such as weld under-bead) appear as less dense images.

Operating parameters.
Tube voltage : 10 - 500 kV
Tube current : 10 - 250 mA
Power consumption : 1 - 10 kW
Portability : fair
Access : fair
Exposure time : 1 sec - 10 min
Thickness range : up to 100 mm
Minimum defect size : 0.1% of thickness X 0.05 mm

Materials.
Most weldable materials may be inspected.

Typical welding applications.
Pipelines
Pressure vessels.

Overall advantages.
Accurate pictorial presentation of results.
Radiographs may be kept as a permanent record.
Not confined to welds.

Overall limitations.
Personnel must be clear of area during exposure.
Cracks parallel to film may not show up.
Film expensive.

Consumables.
Film.
Processing chemicals.
Water.
Isotope replacements - for gamma radiograph

Safety
Cumulative radiation risk to personnel requires stringent precautions.

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It is actually not very hard to bleed (renew) your own motorcycle brake fluid. This should be done at least every 2 years. Or when the brake fluid turns from clear to a brown to black colour (darker it is, the worse it is).

Brake fluid will eat away at plastic and paint, be sure to cover any paint or plastic that may get splashed with brake fluid. Wipe any spilled fluid with the rag and lots of water.

Step 1: Make sure you have the tools to bleed your brake fluid. The tools you require will vary, but generally this is what you will need:

A. Wrench/Spanner (average 10mm)
B. Brake bleeding kit (rubber fitting, clear hose, small container)
C. Brake fluid overflow container (to put the brake bleeding kit small container in)
D. Rags
E. Brake Fluid (check what type of brake fluid you need for your bike. e.g. DOT 3). Make sure to buy enough brake fluid in the DOT type you require. (500ml should be more than enough).

Step 2: Attach the brake bleeding kit to the brake fluid nipple located on the brake caliper.

Step 3: Loosen the nipple so the fluid is free to flow down the brake bleeding kit tube and into the small container

Step 4: Remove the master cylinder cap (top) so you can monitor and refill more brake fluid into the master cylinder as you bleed the brakes.

Step 5. Pump the brake lever so the old/new brake fluid is forced through the tube into the brake bleeding kit fluid container

Step 6: Keep the volume of the master cylinder constant (near full) as to not have it empty. Keep pumping on the brake lever until the fluid coming out is clear (rather than the old brown/black colour).

Step 7: Once all the tiny air bubbles are gone hold pressure on the brake level and re-tighten the brake fluid nipple to close it off.

Step 8: Replace the master cylinder top cover.

Step 9: Remove the brake bleeding kit from the cliper and use the rag with water to clean up any spillage.

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No matter what make of pickup truck you own, chances are you want to change it from the way the factory supplied it. Whether you use your vehicle for work, off-road play or some of both, you can find performance parts, accessories and customization products to make your pickup truck unique. When you want your pickup truck to look and perform better, accessories will help you customize it.

While it's possible to get some accessories from the Chevy, GMC, Dodge, Ford, Jeep, Mazda, Nissan or Toyota dealer where you bought your truck, you will find a much bigger selection of items online. You may also get better bargains shopping this way. Some popular makers of pickup truck accessories include Lund, Westin, Dee Zee, Outland, Auto Ventshade, Warn, Saddleman, Thule, PIAA, Vector, Wolo, Deflecta Shield, Pilot, Hoppy, Grizzly and Protecta.

Exterior accessories

There are many types of exterior pickup truck accessories to enhance the appearance of the outside of your truck. They include air dams, bras and masks, bug shields, bumpers, fender flares, graphics and emblems, grille guards, hood ornaments, hoods and scoops, mirrors, racks and cargo accessories, roll pans, running boards, splash guards, tool boxes, truck steps, tire covers, visors, wings and spoilers and wiper cowls. Select items that will complement your truck's basic lines and that will work well together instead of looking cluttered.

Interior accessories

Installing interior accessories is all about improving the comfort level when riding in your truck. Some examples are 12 volt accessories, cargo trays and liners, consoles and racks, dash covers and trim, door accessories, floor mats, horns, instrument panel covers, pet accessories, seat covers, seats and steering wheel covers.

How about adding some electronics to enhance your ride? Choices include CBs and scanners, cruise controls, GMRS radio, GPS and navigation systems, power inverters, radar and laser detectors, remote starters, security systems and antennas. You might also want to upgrade the standard radio that came with your truck to a stereo CD or satellite radio system.

Accessories cushion the load and improve the ride

Trucks are all about hauling things, so why not do it in style? Pickup truck accessories for your truck bed include cargo control, bed mats, bed liners, bed protection, bed rails, tailgate accessories and tonneau covers. You might also want towing accessories like hitch balls, hitch mounts, hitch covers, hitch steps, hitch wiring, hitches, tow hooks and straps, towing mirrors, winch accessories, winches and winch mounting systems.

By improving your pickup's suspension and brakes you make the ride both smoother and safer. To do this, you might need anti-sway bars, bars and arms, bushings and shackles, hubs, lift kits, lowering kits, shocks and struts, skit plates and trusses and springs. Adding more lighting not only improves the truck's appearance, it also improves safety. Some typical lighting pickup truck accessories are accent lighting, auxiliary lighting, back-up lights, bulbs and lamps, driving and fog lights, headlights, interior lights, light bars, light covers, light guards, marker lights, neon lighting, spotlights, taillights, tow lighting and wiring, turn signal lights and warning lights.

Electrical and exhaust systems are essential

If your pickup won't start, it doesn't matter how good it looks. If you've got this problem or fear it might happen, try buying alternator accessories, battery accessories, battery chargers, chassis wiring or jump start systems. If the problem is on the exhaust end, you might need catalytic converters, exhaust systems, exhaust tips and extensions, headers or mufflers.

To do all this work yourself, you'll need some tools and equipment. Useful items include tire pressure gauges, car care products, computer software, creepers and seats, diagnostic equipment, engine hoists and stands, garage and parking accessories, jacks, stands, ramps, paint, sanding materials and abrasives.

And once your truck is tricked out to your heart's desire, get out your camera. You're going to want to showoff your new, improved truck to all of your friends.

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Orbital welding is Automatic Tungsten inert gas welding. It eliminates chances of manual errors in welding. It produces identical welds for hundred of times hence accuracy in welding.

Orbital welding was first used in the 1960's when the aerospace industry recognized the need for a superior joining technique for aerospace hydraulic lines. A mechanism was developed in which the arc from a tungsten electrode was rotated around the tubing weld joint. The arc welding current was regulated with a control system thus automating the entire process. The result was a more precision and reliable method than the manual welding method it replaced.
Orbital welding became practical for many industries in the early 1980's when combination power supply / control systems were developed that operated from 110 V AC and were physically small enough to be carried from place to place on a construction site for multiple in-place welds. Modern day orbital welding systems offer computer control where welding parameters for a variety of applications can be stored in memory and called up when needed for a specific application. The skills of a certified welder are thus built into the welding system, producing enormous numbers of identical welds and leaving significantly less room for error or defects.

Orbital Welding Equipment

In the orbital welding process, tubes / pipes are clamped in place and an orbital weld head rotates an electrode and electric arc around the weld joint to make the required weld. An orbital welding system consists of a power supply and an orbital weld head.

Power Supply: The power supply / control system supplies and controls the welding parameters according to the specific weld program created or recalled from memory. The power supply provides the control parameters, the arc welding current, the power to drive the motor in the weld head and switches the shield gas (es) on / off as necessary.

Weld Head: Orbital weld heads are normally of the enclosed type and provide an inert atmosphere chamber that surrounds the weld joint. Standard enclosed orbital weld heads are practical in welding tube sizes from 1/16 inch (1.6mm) to 6 inches (152mm) with wall thickness' of up to 0.154 inches (3.9mm) Larger diameters and wall thickness' can be accommodated with open style weld heads.

The Physics of the GTAW Process

The orbital welding process uses the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding process (GTAW) as the source of the electric arc that melts the base material and forms the weld. In the GTAW process (also referred to as the Tungsten Inert Gas process - TIG) an electric arc is established between a Tungsten electrode and the part to be welded. To start the arc, an RF or high voltage signal (usually 3.5 to 7 KV) is used to break down (ionize) the insulating properties of the shield gas and make it electrically conductive in order to pass through a tiny amount of current. A capacitor dumps current into this electrical path, which reduces the arc voltage to a level where the power supply can then supply current for the arc. The power supply responds to the demand and provides weld current to keep the arc established. The metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses together.

Reasons for Using Orbital Welding Equipment

There are many reasons for using orbital welding equipment. The ability to make high quality, consistent welds repeatedly at a speed close to the maximum weld speed offer many benefits to the user:

* Productivity. An orbital welding system will drastically outperform manual welders, many times paying for the cost of the orbital equipment in a single job.

* Quality. The quality of a weld created by an orbital welding system with the correct weld program will be superior to that of manual welding. In applications such as semiconductor or pharmaceutical tube welding, orbital welding is the only means to reach the weld quality requirements.

* Consistency. Once a weld program has been established an orbital welding system can repeatedly perform the same weld hundreds of times, eliminating the normal variability, inconsistencies, errors and defects of manual welding.

* Orbital welding may be used in applications where a tube or pipe to be welded cannot be rotated or where rotation of the part is not practical.

* Orbital welding may be used in applications where access space restrictions limit the physical size of the welding device. Weld heads may be used in rows of boiler tubing where it would be difficult for a manual welder to use a welding torch or view the weld joint.

* Many other reasons exist for the use of orbital equipment over manual welding. Examples are applications where inspection of the internal weld is not practical for each weld created. By making a sample weld coupon that passes certification, the logic holds that if the sample weld is acceptable, that successive welds created by an automatic machine with the same input parameters should also be sound.

Industries and Applications for Orbital Welding

Aerospace: As noted earlier, the aerospace industry was the first industry to recognize the requirement for orbital welding. The high-pressure systems of a single plane can have over 1,500 welded joints, all automatically created with orbital equipment.

Boiler Tube: Boiler tube installation and repairs offer a perfect application for orbital welding. Compact orbital weld heads can be clamped in place between rows of heat exchanger tubing where a manual welder would experience severe difficulty making repeatable welds.

Food, Dairy and Beverage Industries: The food, dairy and beverage industries require consistent full penetration welds on all weld joints. Most of these tubing / piping systems have schedules for cleaning and sterilization in place. For maximum piping system efficiency the tubing must be as smooth as possible. Any pit, crevice, crack or incomplete weld joint can form a place for the fluid inside the tubing to be trapped and form a bacteria harbor.

Nuclear Piping: The nuclear industry with its severe operating environment and associated specifications for a high quality weld has long been an advocate of orbital welding.

Offshore Applications: Sub-sea hydraulic lines use materials whose properties can be altered during the thermal changes that are normal with a weld cycle. Hydraulic joints welded with orbital equipment offer superior corrosion resistance and mechanical properties.

Pharmaceutical Industry: Pharmaceutical process lines and piping systems deliver high quality water to their processes. This requires high quality welds to ensure a source of water from the tubes that is uncontaminated by bacteria, rust or other contaminant. Orbital welding ensures full penetration welds with no overheating occurring that could undermine the corrosion resistance of the final weld zone.

Semiconductor Industry: The semiconductor industry requires piping systems with extremely smooth internal surface finish in order to prevent contaminant buildup on the tubing walls or weld joints. Once large enough, a build up of particulate, moisture or contaminant could release and ruin the batch process.

Tube/Pipe Fittings, Valves and Regulators: Hydraulic lines and liquid and gas delivery systems all require tubing with connector fittings. Orbital systems provide a means to ensure high productivity of welding and improved weld quality. Sometimes the tubing may be welded in place to a valve or regulator body. Here the orbital weld head provides the ability to produce high quality welds in applications with restricted access to the weld joint.

A manual weld taken from an operating plant.

This weld has defects that include lack-of- penetration, misalignment,

a huge crevice, and discoloration due to poor ID purge. This weld would be considered unacceptable by any standard

An orbital weld on 316L-electropolished stainless steel. The weld is fully penetrated with a uniform crevice-free inner weld bead with good alignment. The ID was purged with argon, which resulted in slight discoloration of the HAZ.

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Tire Care and Tyre Tips

Tires on motorcycles, like any vehicle, play a vital role in the performance, handling and safety of the bike. Many times we tend to ignore the necessary maintenance needed to keep the tires safe. With motorcycles, there are only two small contact patches for the rider to rely on, so it is extremely important to keep the tires in top condition.

Any tire, no matter how well constructed, may fail in use as a result of punctures, impact damage, improper inflation, overloading, or other conditions resulting from use or misuse. Tire failure may create a risk of property damage, serious personal injury or death. To reduce the risk of tire failure, we strongly recommend you read and follow all safety information contained in this brochure.

It is recommended that riders do a periodic inspection of their tires and have any imbedded objects removed by a qualified service person. Serious personal injury or death may result from a tire failure. Many tire failures are preceded by vibration, bumps, bulges or irregular wear. If a vibration occurs while riding your motorcycle, or you notice a bump, bulge or irregular wear, have your tires and motorcycle evaluated by a qualified service person.

It is not often that a properly maintained tire will "blow out" while you are riding. More commonly if air is lost, it will be gradual. If you do experience a blow out or sudden tire failure, the following information should be helpful: When the failure occurs, slowly decrease the amount of throttle, hold the handlebars firmly, and steer to maintain your lane position. Once the motorcycle has slowed and is fully under control, apply the brakes gently. Gradually pull over to the shoulder and come to a stop.

Tire Inflation

Always keep the motorcycle manufacturer's recommended air pressure in both tires. This is an important requirement for tire safety and mileage. Your motorcycle owner’s manual will tell you the recommended cold inflation pressure. On some motorcycles, the recommended front and rear tire pressures will be different. The pressures stamped on the sidewall of the tire are only for maximum loads. On some occasions, these pressures will also be the manufacturers recommended settings as well.

Riding on tires with too little air pressure is dangerous. The tires will build excessive heat. This can cause a sudden tire failure that could lead to serious personal injury or death.

Underinflation may also:
-Damage the tire leading to tire failure
-Adversely affect vehicle cornering
-Reduce tire life
-Increase fuel consumption
-Fatigue cracking

Riding on tires with too much air can be dangerous. The tires are more likely to be cut, punctured, or broken by sudden impact. Serious personal injury or death could result. Do not exceed the pressure indicated on the tire sidewall. Consult your owner’s manual for the recommended inflation and other tire information.

Never inflate a tire unless it is secured to the motorcycle or a tire-mounting machine. Inflating an unsecured tire is dangerous. If it bursts, it could be hurled into the air with explosive force resulting in serious personal injury or death.


Valve Stems, Cores & Caps
Old or damaged valve stems and cores may cause air loss. Replace them when mounting new tires. Use caps (finger tight) on the valve stems to keep dust, dirt and moisture away from the valve.

Checking Tire Inflation

-Check your tire air pressure at least once a week and before long trips. Be sure to use an accurate pressure gauge.
-Check your air pressure when the tires are "cold." The tires are "cold" when your motorcycle has been ridden less than a mile at moderate speed or after being stopped for three or more hours.
-If you must add air when your tires are hot, add four pounds per square inch (4 psi)(28 kPa) above the recommended cold inflation pressure. Recheck the inflation pressure when the tire is cold.
-Never release air from a hot tire in order to reach the recommended cold tire pressure. -Normal riding causes tires to run hotter and inflation pressure to increase. If you release air when your tires are hot, you may dangerously under inflate your tires.
-If your tires lose more than two pounds per square inch (2 psi)(14 kPa) per month, the tire, the valve, or wheel may be damaged. Consult your local dealer for an inspection.
-Use valve caps to keep valve cores clean, clear of debris and to help guard against air leakage.

Break-in Period

In order for your new tire(s) to provide optimum performance, tires should be ridden very cautiously for the first 100 miles in order for the tread surface to be “Scuffed-In” and work properly. Directly after new tires are mounted, sudden acceleration, maximum braking and hard cornering must be avoided. This will allow the rider to adjust to the “Feel” and handling characteristics of the new tire and for the new tire to be “Scuffed-In” correctly in order to achieve optimum grip level.

Tire Loading

Riding your motorcycle in an overloaded condition is dangerous. Overloading causes excessive heat to build up in your tires. This can lead to sudden tire failure and serious personal injury or death while the tire is overloaded or at some later date.

Safe Loading

Consult your motorcycle owner's manual for the motorcycle load limits and proper tire inflation that applies to your motorcycle and tires.

Never exceed the maximum load rating stamped on the tire sidewall of your tire or the maximum vehicle load rating, whichever is less. Before a trip, determine the total weight of luggage, equipment, and rider(s) to be added to your vehicle.

Never exceed the accessory restrictions and motorcycle load capacity found in the owner's manual, or the maximum load molded on the sidewall of the tire.

Pulling trailers behind your motorcycle is not recommended by Bridgestone/Firestone as trailers may contribute to motorcycle instability and overload.

Tire Damage

Riding on damaged tires is dangerous. A damaged tire can suddenly fail causing serious personal injury or death. Have your tires regularly inspected by your local dealer for damage.

Spotting Damaged Tires

After striking anything unusual in the roadway, ask your local dealer to demount the tire and inspect it for damage. A tire may not have visible signs of damage on the tire surface. Yet, the tire may suddenly fail without warning, a day, a week, or even months later.
Inspect your tires for cuts, cracks, splits or bruises in the tread and sidewall areas. Bumps or bulges may indicate a separation within the tire body. Have your tire inspected by a qualified tire service person. It may be necessary to have it removed from the wheel for a complete inspection.

Inspect your tires for adequate tread depth. When the tire is worn to the built-in indicators at 1/32nd inch (0.8 millimeters) or less tread groove depth, or the tire cord or fabric is exposed, the tire is dangerously worn and must be replaced immediately.

Inspect your tires for uneven wear. Wear on one side of the tread or flat spots in the tread may indicate a problem with the tire or vehicle. Consult your local dealer.
Inspect your rims also. If you have a bent or cracked rim, it must be replaced.

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Construction equipment is much like any other equipment in one sense; if you take care of it, it performs better than if it is abused. However, construction equipment typically tends to be used harder than similar equipment would be used if not on a construction site.

Another generality which can be made regarding construction equipment is its size. When we think of construction, we think of the giant earth moving machines, the oversize cranes, the trucks which haul materials and supplies to and from the construction location.

Construction equipment tends to be specialized for one purpose only. Although dump trucks collect and transport dirt and rocks, there is a great deal of difference between hauling a huge load of boulders to be used as road bed base for a interstate highway and hauling a load of paving stones from the local Home Depot outlet to the patio behind one's home.

Important features to consider when viewing the subject of construction equipment repairs are the cost, accessibility, speed and useful life of the equipment.

The cost of the repair can vary based on who is doing the repair. Some companies find it more cost effective to hire and train their own mechanics to deal with construction equipment repairs and maintenance. Others will pay the cost of a factory trained mechanic or a qualified service provider.

Depending on where the construction equipment is sited, getting the equipment to the repair facility, or bringing repair personnel to the equipment can be a major undertaking.

The length of time required to complete the repair can be a crucial factor when down time on a job can have a snowball effect on the capability of completing an entire project on time and on budget. Sometimes even minutes of downtime because of needed construction equipment repairs can jeopardize the financial success of the project.

One final factor which is important to consider regarding repairs of construction equipment is the useful life of the equipment. Ordinarily, from an accounting standpoint, equipment is depreciated over some period of time and then discarded, either through sales or junking of the item. Putting repair money into equipment which has already reached the end of its useful life may not be cost effective.

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There are instances where people with humble beginnings have risen to great heights and developed great business establishments. Cars have done that too. Toyota Camry’s predecessors had humble beginnings in the Toyota family. That did not prevent Camry from commanding a major share in the mid-size sedan market. How could it tower over others in the market in its category? Several steps were taken to achieve this. Rear-wheel drive in the older model was replaced by front-wheel drive in Camry. Camry also has an option of V6 engine in place of only the four-cylinder engine in the older model. There are choices in transmission system. It provides many features contributing to a comfortable ride. These include stability control and cruise control. Its size is bigger and has some luxurious fittings. It has remained in the market for two and a half decades. It is so because it is reliable, comfortable, and has enough space. It is fuel efficient. A gas-electric hybrid Camry is also in the market.

Minute attention has been paid to all the features and accessories of the car, as would be apparent from a look at Camry headlights. Therefore when it is time to replace them you should choose great new headlights from the options that are available. Headlights are important because on these depend safety while driving when visibility is poor. Headlights need to be bright to provide adequate lighting on the road. Moreover headlights have to be adjustable to cast the beam of light in the required direction. Headlights may be called the eyes of the car. Eyes can be beautiful, so can be Toyota Camry headlights. They add their own style and finishing touch to the car. There are options of different colors and finish in their housing. While headlights will show you the way others will be astonished by their looks.

The car that has remained popular for such a long time has to be really good. You and your family and friends can have a comfortable and joyous ride in Camry. Camry headlights and the car will safeguard your reputation as a man of refined taste which you would have cultivated over years. You can see the latest Camry headlights at http://www.ilovebodykits.com.

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Flexbar Portable Steel Hardness Tester (complete kit). Range of 20 to 65 HRC (equivalent Rockwell C Scale). Accuracy of °1.5 Points. Complete kit includes a hand-held impact indenter, an illuminated 60X measuring microscope, batteries, test block, hardness conversion calculator, instructions, and carrying case. A hand-held impact indenter drives a 1/16" diameter carbide ball into the sample with a calibrated impact. The impression diameter is read directly with a microscope containing a calibrated reticle.

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Product Description

*Uses self-shielding flux-core welding wire--no need for gas or gas regulator*On-board wire-spool storage with trigger-control line feed, infinitely adjustable wire speed*Operates on 120-volt AC/24A power; no special wiring required; 14 AWG CUL-listed power cord*Duty cycle 18% @ 60 amps, 10% @ 90 amps; wire capacity 0.035" or 0.030"*Includes torch with 7' cable, 6' 8AWG ground cord & clamp, flux-core welding wire, nozzle & tipEasy-to-operate MIGwelder for sheet metal and light steel, comes ready to weld right out of the box. Includes torch/cable, grounding cord & clamp, 4" spool 0.030" flux-cored welding wire, carry handle, nozzle and 2 copper tips. Dimensions 14-1/2"L x 14"H (with handle), 8"W, 34 lbs.
Product Features

* Dual Flux/Mig welder
* welding Amp Range: 55-90 Amp
* Rated AC Input: 120VAC, 60Hz, 18 Amps (for use on a 20 Amps Branch circuit)
* Torch Power Cable: 6AWG Single Insulation
* Ground Cable: 6AWG Single Insulation

Technical Details

* Power Cord: 3-Core, 14AWG Double Insulated
* Thermal Overload: Both settings: 6 minutes shutdown, 10 minutes back on with light
* welder Tip: 0.030" and ---0.040"
* Wire Size: 0.030"---0.040" flux core wire
* Includes: 0.01" welder Tip, welding Face Shield, Wire Brush/Hammer combination

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STARTING THE MACHINE
- Turn the battery disconnect switch to ON (if equipped)
- Engage the parking brake
- Adjust seat, Adjust mirrors, Fasten seat belt
- Move direction control lever into neutral
- Ensure all implements are grounded
- Move the attachment control levers to HOLD
- Ensure all personnel are clear of machine
- Sound horn
- Use ether start aid switch if necessary (per OMM)
- Turn key start switch to ON
- Perform startup test or observe monitoring system self-test (if applicable)
- Turn key start switch to START. Crank engine
MACHINE WARM UP
- Allow machine to warm up (See recommended warm up per OMM)
- Engage and disengage attachment controls to help speed warm-up of hydraulic
components
- Cycle all controls to allow warm oil to circulate through all hydraulic cylinders and lines
- Perform steering, Service brake, and Parking brake operation checks (per OMM by machine model)
- Check secondary steering operation (if equipped)
- Check gauges, Indicators, and Action light frequently

MOVING THE MACHINE
- Ensure area is clear
- Raise all lowered implements
- Depress service brake pedal
- Release the parking brake
- Move transmission control lever to desired direction
- Release service brake pedal and depress accelerator pedal

MACHINE SHUT DOWN
Park the machine on smooth level area (if necessary to park on grade, block wheels)
Set parking brake
- Lower all hydraulic implements
- Run engine at low idle for 5 minutes to allow engine to cool
- Turn key start switch to OFF and remove key
- Dismount machine using 3-point contact
- Block wheels and remove disconnect switch key if parking for extended period (per OMM)
- Drain water from air tank, if equipped
- Conduct post-operation walk-around inspection

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A battery only requires a little monthly maintenance to perform perfectly. Keep the battery charged to 100%, recharging when the lights dim, the starter sounds weak, or the battery hasn't been used in more than two weeks. Other than that, follow this simple check list every month:
- Check the electrolyte level
- Top up only with distilled or deionized water, wear gloves and protective glasses. Top up in a well ventilated area, Beware of fumes.
- Keep the top free of grime
- Check cables, clamps, and case for obvious damage or loose connections
- Clean terminals and connectors
as necessary
- Check inside for excessive sediment, sulfation or mossing
- Make sure the exhaust tube is free of kinks and clogs
- Replace caps firmly
- Finish up by testing the battery with either a hydrometer or voltmeter. To extend the service life of your battery, make monthly battery maintenance part of your routine.
Use only distilled or deionized water, NOT tap water. Tap water has minerals in it that will not do the battery any good.

Storage can be hard on batteries. In fact, non-use can leave them unable to hold a charge.

Store your bike
in a place that is always warmer than 32 degrees. If your bike is outside remove the battery from your bike and store it in a location that is always warmer than 32 degrees. This will insure that your battery does not freeze and crack.

If you remove the battery from your bike DO NOT store it on a concrete or metal surface, place the battery on a wood or other non-conductive surface. Batteries stored on concrete or metal will discharge over time.

Place a charger on your battery. Trickle charge your battery at least once a month. A battery that is fully charged will have a longer life and is less likely to freeze during cold winter weather.



Safety - Proper Clothing

Always wear a face shield or safety goggles.

Wear plastic gloves to prevent acid burns. An apron or smock will protect your clothes.
Working With Acid

Clean up acid spills immediately using a water and baking soda solution to neutralize (1lb. baking soda in 1 gallon of water).

Make sure the acid container is clearly marked and the work area is well-lighted and well-ventilated.

If sulfuric acid is swallowed or splashed in the eyes, treat immediately. Sulfuric acid in the eyes can cause blindness. Serious internal injuries or death can result if swallowed. Used as an electrolyte, sulfuric acid can burn the skin.

ANTIDOTES: For acid on the skin, flush with water. If acid is swallowed drink large quantities of milk or water, followed by milk of magnesia, vegetable oil or beaten eggs. Do not induce vomiting. Call a poison control center or doctor immediately. For acid in the eyes, flush for several minutes with water and seek immediate medical attention.


Charging Safety

When charging conventional batteries, loosen vent caps and ventilate charging area. A buildup of hydrogen and oxygen in the battery or in the charging area can create an explosion hazard.
If the battery feels hot to the touch during charging, STOP. Allow the battery to cool before charging again. Heat damages the plates, and a battery that is too hot can explode.

NEVER put the red sealing cap back on the battery once you take it off. If you do, gases will become trapped and could explode.

Make sure the vent tube isn't kinked or blocked. Otherwise, gases could build up and explode.

Properly connect the charger to the battery: positive charger lead to positive battery post and negative charger lead to negative battery post. Unplug the charger or turn it off before you disconnect the leads, which will cut down on the chance of sparks.

ABSOLUTELY NO SMOKING, SPARKS OR FLAMES AROUND CHARGING BATTERIES. Charging gives off hydrogen and oxygen, which explode if ignited.

Selecting the Proper Battery

It's easier than you think to buy the wrong battery for your vehicle. Unless your current battery is definitely the original equipment, you're taking a chance by not double checking before you purchase the new battery. You can search for a certain battery, but there are a few general rules you should know before you search.

If the battery for your vehicle is sensor-equipped, remember to replace the sensor at the same time you change the battery.

Never swap a maintenance Free battery for another battery unless the Applications book says it's OK.

When given the option of several different batteries for your vehicle, choose the one that will give you what you want performance-wise. It's up to you.

Always make sure you have the right battery before you charge and install it. Save yourself the hassle (and money) of having to buy another battery.

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It is the Duty of a welding inspector to ensure that all operations concerning welding are carried out in strict according with written, or agreed practices, or specifications.
This will include monitoring or checking a number of operation including:

Before Welding
Safety:
Ensure that all operations are carried out in complete complience with local company, or National safety legislation(i.e. permits to work are in place).

Documentation
Specification (Year and revision)
Drawing (Correct revisions)
Welding procedure specification and welder approvals
Calibration certification (Welding equipment/ancillaries and all inspection instrument)
Material and cionsumable certification

Welding Process and Ancillaries
Welding equipment and all related ancillaries (Cable, regulator, ovens, quivers, etc)

Incoming Consumable
All pipe/plate and welding consumable for size, type and condition.

Marking out preparation and set up:
Correct nethod of cutting weld prepararions (pre heat for thermal cutting if applicable)
Correct preparation (Relevant bevel angles, root face, root gabe, root radius, land, etc)
Correct pre-welding distortion control (Tacking, bridging, jigs, line up clamps, etc)
Correct pre heat applied prior to tack welding
All tack to be monitored and inspected.

During Welding
Pre-heat values (Heating methode, location and control)
In-process distortion control (Squence or balanced welding)
Consumable control (Specification, size, condition, and any special treatment)
Process type and all related variable parameters (Voltage, amperege, travel speed)
Purging gases (Type, pressure/flow and control methode)
Wedling condition for root run/hot pass and all subsequent run, and inter0run ceaning)
Minimum, or maximum inter-pass temperature (Temperature and controling methode)
Complience with all other variables sated on the approved welding procedure

After Welding
Visual inspection of the welded joint (including dimensional aspects)
NDT requirements (Methode and qualification of operator, and excecution)
Identify repairs from assesment of visual or and NDT reports (Refer to repair below)
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) (Heating method and temperature recording system)
Re-inspect with visual/NDT after PWHT (if applicable)
Hydrostatic test procedures (For pipelines or pressure vessels)

Repairs
Excavation procedure (Approval and execution)
Approval of NDT procedures (For assessment of complete defect removal)
Repair procedure (Approval or re-welding procedures and welder approval)
Execution of approved re-welding procedure (Complience with repair procedure)
Re-inspect the repair area with visual inspection and approved NDT methode.

Submission of inspection reports, and all related documents to the Q/C departement.

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Rugged automotive linear regulator uses only 20µA of quiescent current.
Maxim's new linear regulator consumes only 20µA (typ) of IQ to conserve battery life, and includes a reset output with adjustable delay so no external reset IC is needed.

The MAX16910, an ultra-low quiescent current, high-voltage linear regulator with a reset output. This 200mA linear regulator consumes only 20µA (typ) of quiescent current to conserve battery life in always-on automotive applications. Designed for automotive environments using Maxim's robust BiCMOS process, the MAX16910 is capable of operating from a wide, 3.5V to 30V input-voltage range to withstand cold-crank and double-battery conditions; it can also operate during load-dump conditions up to 45V. Additionally, the integrated open-drain reset output with adjustable delay eliminates the need for an external reset IC. Thus, the MAX16910 is ideal for always-on automotive applications in which small solution size and power efficiency are critical.

The MAX16910 has three pin-selectable output-voltage configurations: fixed output voltages of 3.3V or 5V, or an externally adjustable output-voltage range from 1.5V to 11V. The reset output has a delay that is adjustable through a small external capacitor. Additional protection features include a short-circuit current limit and thermal shutdown.

The MAX16910 is fully specified over the -40°C to +125°C automotive temperature range. It is AEC-Q100 automotive qualified and is available in thermally enhanced 8-pin TDFN and SO packages.

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The E60, like the E80 launched earlier this year, features a completely new design that increases the comfort of the operator and the durability of the machine, while decreasing the frequency needed for some preventive maintenance tasks. Everything about the new excavator has been created to help keep operators working longer, including a spacious cab and a top-ofthe-line seat to keep operators comfortable and polymer shims to decrease wear on the lateral pins.

Longer service intervals
Daily greasing of the bushings at the boom, arm and bucket pivot is a thing of the past with the E60 excavator. Normally, this process takes up to 30 minutes of an operator's time each day. Now, the operator will be able to spend that time working because the E60 has extended the service interval of greasing the bushings to 250 hours.

Operator comfort
The E60 revolutionizes operator comfort by offering a spacious cab with an operator seat that adjusts nine ways and a heating and air conditioning system that has true automotive-style controls. These features have been designed to keep operators who spend many hours in their machines comfortable and productive.

The top-of-the-line seat allows the operator to create an individually designed ergonomic work environment. The operator can adjust the seat nine different ways, including moving or angling the armrests, joysticks, lumbar support, and seat bottom and back. With these adjustments, operators of any size can adjust the seat to their personal preference. These adjustments also let Bobcat E60 excavator, operators move the seat to an area where they can best control the foot pedals and see the work
area.

The high-capacity climate-control system has true automotive-style controls and vents in front of and to the rear of the operator, placing the air movement exactly where needed. This system has five modes of air placement that can target the operator's body in different areas, such as from the front only, or from the front and rear.

A fixed instrument panel on the right side of the cab is a central, easy-to-read display for all of the information the operator needs on machine performance.

Attachment readiness
Each E60 is delivered clamp-ready for operators who want to quickly and easily add and use a clamp. In addition to clamps, Bobcat provides a number of attachments available for use on the excavator. The X-Change® attachment quick coupler system, standard on the E60, allows the operator to quickly change between attachments. A complete line of attachments including trenching buckets, hydraulic breakers, earth augers and a grading bucket are available to complete even the most challenging tasks.

Fuel use
The E60 has an Interim Tier 4 50-horsepower engine. While this engine provides substantial power to complete work, it doesn't mean contractors will waste a lot of extra fuel. The engine control system on the excavator has an auto-idle feature, reducing fuel consumption when the machine is not working. Engine rpm is controlled electronically so that the operator uses only as much engine power as necessary for the application. The quiet operation of the engine is also a benefit, as many cities and work areas are becoming more sensitive to construction noise.

Additional features
With minimal tail swing, the E60 can work in compact work environments and next to
buildings or other obstructions. The excavator features the Bobcat in-track swing frame, which enables the boom to stay within the width of the tracks, making it even easier for the excavator to work in constricted job conditions. The E60 is available with either rubber tracks or steel tracks.

The E60, standard-equipped with cab and HVAC system, has a dig depth of 13 feet 7 inches and an operating weight of 13,556 pounds with rubber tracks.

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Those who love to ride motorcycles know there are dangers involved in the pursuit. Even if the cyclist is the perfect driver, observant of all laws and careful with the road conditions, things can happen. Most times, it’s another driver that causes the problem, but who is at fault isn’t the primary concern when injuries take place. It is at these times the smart motorcyclist is the one that happens to have not only good motorcycle coverage, but also a solid health insurance policy.
Injuries related to motorcycle accidents can be severe. Since the driver isn’t protected from head to toe by a car’s body, there can be sliding, scraping, crushing and other types of damage. Recuperation can be long and costly.

The best way to make sure you’re prepared for the worst is to be certain you have a good policy. Whether it’s one provided by your employer or a private purchase plan, there are some basics about medical insurance anyone – a motorcyclist or not – should understand.

Many plans come with a deductible. This is the amount of money that has to be paid before the policy can be used. Generally, the lower the better for medical insurance. And, in some cases, the personal injury protection or PIP deductible on a motorcycle policy itself can be higher if a good health plan will supplement. Deductibles can be per incident in the case of motor policies or annual.

Co-insurance involves cases where two policies come into play. This is common in motor vehicle related accidents. One plan may pay first or be the lead payer while the other one picks up where the first left off. Doctors’ offices and medical facilities generally can help the insured figure who which has to pay what.

A co-payment is a set amount a person insured under a medical policy has to pay per visit to a doctor, hospital or other facility. The amount remains the same regardless of the status of the deductible.

Most medical insurance companies set an out-of-pocket maximum for their clients on an annual basis. This is the total amount of money out of pocket a person will be asked to pay in any given year. Once this amount is met, the insurance generally kicks in at 100 percent, minus the deductible amount. This, of course, does not include premium expenses either.

The lifetime max on a policy is something to consider as well. Since accidents can be costly, the figure is worth keeping in mind. Generally, policies offer a lifetime max of about $1 million. This means once that figure has been met, the policy typically won’t cover anything else.

Of particular concern to cyclists is the exclusion clause of a policy. This will tell the insured what is not covered by the policy. In other words, it’s the fine print.

Generally, those who have a good motor vehicle policy and good medical insurance can rest assured their needs will be met if an accident does take place. Shopping for health insurance and auto insurance, however, should be a deliberate process.

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The field of NDT is varied, there are various Non destructive Testing (NDT) methods used for inspection of aircraft, powerplant, and components in aircraft. The effectiveness of any particular method of NDT depends upon the skill, experience, and training of the person(s) performing the inspection process. Each process is limited in its usefulness by its adaptability to the particular component to be inspected.

The product manufacturer or the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) generally specifies the particular NDT method and procedure to be used in inspection. These NDT requirements will be specified in the manufacturer's inspection, maintenance, or overhaul manual; FAA Airworthiness Directives (AD); Supplemental Structural Inspection Documents (SSID); or manufacturer's service bulletins (SB). However, in some conditions an alternate NDT method and procedure can be used. This includes procedures and data developed by FAA certificated repair stations under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, 14 CFR part 145.

Title 14 CFR part 43 requires that all maintenance be performed using methods, techniques, and practices prescribed in the current manufacturer's maintenance manual or instructions for continued airworthiness prepared by its manufacturer. If the maintenance instructions include materials, parts, tools, equipment, or test apparatus necessary to comply with industry practices then those items are required to be available and used as per part 43.

NDT levels.

Air Transport Association (ATA) Specification 105 provides guidelines For Training and Qualifying Personnel In Non destructive Testing Methods.

a. Level i Special.
Initial classroom hours and on-the-job training shall be sufficient to qualify an individual for certification for a specific task. The individual must be able to pass a vision and color perception examination, a general exam dealing with standards and NDT procedures, and a practical exam conducted by a qualified Level II or Level III certificated person.
b. Level i/Level ii.
The individual shall have an FAA Airframe and Powerplant Mechanic Certificate, complete the required number of formal classroom hours, and complete an examination.
c. Level iii.
(1) The individual must have graduated from a 4 year college or university with a degree in engineering or science, plus 1 year of minimum experience in NDT in an assignment comparable to that of a Level II in the applicable NDT methods: or
(2) The individual must have 2 years of engineering or science study at a university, college, or technical school, plus 2 years of experience as a Level ii in the applicable NDT methods: or
(3) The individual must have 4 years of experience working as a Level ii in the applicable NDT methods and complete an examination.

The success of any aerospace NDT methods and procedures depends upon the knowledge, skill, and experience of the aerospace NDT personnel involved. The person(s) responsible for detecting and interpreting indications, such as eddy current, X-ray, or ultrasonic NDT, must be qualified and certified to specific FAA, or other acceptable government or industry standards, such as MIL-STD-410, Non destructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification, or Air Transport Association (ATA) Specification 105 Guidelines for Training and Qualifying Personnel in Non destructive Testing Methods. The person should be familiar with the test method, know the potential types of discontinuities peculiar to the material, and be familiar with their effect on the structural integrity of the part.
Eddy current inspection detects flaws in conductive materials.

Magnetic particle inspection is for flaw detection in ferromagnetic materials.
Dye penetrant inspection or liquid penetrant inspection LPI locates surface-breaking cracks or defects in all non-porous materials whcih might be, for example, fatigue.

Flaw detection and processes.

Inspection personnel should know where flaws occur or can be expected to exist and what effect they can have in each of the aerospace NDT test methods. Misinterpretation and/or improper evaluation of flaws or improper performance of aerospace NDT can result in serviceable parts being rejected and defective parts being accepted.
All NDT personnel should be familiar with the detection of flaws such as: corrosion, inherent flaws, primary processing flaws, secondary processing or finishing flaws, and in-service flaws. The following paragraphs classify and discuss the types of flaws or anomalies that may be detected by aerospace NDT.

a. Corrosion detection. This is the electrochemical deterioration of a metal resulting from chemical reaction with the surrounding environment. Corrosion is very common and can be an extremely critical defect. Therefore, NDT personnel may devote a significant amount of their inspection time to corrosion detection.

b. Inherent Flaws. This group of flaws is present in metal as the result of its initial solidification from the molten state, before any of the operations to forge or roll it into useful sizes and shapes have begun. The following are brief descriptions of some inherent flaws.

Primary pipe is a shrinkage cavity that forms at the top of an ingot during metal solidification, which can extend deep into the ingot. Failure to cut away all of the ingot shrinkage cavity can result in unsound metal. called pipe, that shows up as irregular voids in finished products.

Blowholes are secondary pipe holes in metal that can occur when gas bubbles are trapped as the molten metal in an ingot mold solidifies. Many of these blowholes are clean on the interior and are welded shut into sound metal during the first rolling or forging of the ingot. However, some do not weld and can appear as seams or laminations in finished products.

Segregation is a non-uniform distribution of various chemical constituents that can occur in a metal when an ingot or casting solidifies. Segregation can occur anywhere in the metal and is normally irregular in shape. However, there is a tendency for some constituents in the metal to concentrate in the liquid that solidifies last.
Porosity is holes in a material's surface or scattered throughout the material, caused by gases being liberated and trapped as the material solidifies.

Inclusions are impurities, such as slag, oxides, sulfides, etc., that occur in ingots and castings. Inclusions are commonly caused by incomplete refining of the metal ore or the incomplete mixing of deoxidizing materials added to the molten metal in the furnace.

Cooling cracks can occur in casting due to stresses resulting from cooling, and are often associated with changes in cross sections of the part. Cooling cracks can also occur when alloy and tool steel bars are rolled and subsequently cooled. Also, stresses can occur from uneven cooling which can be severe enough to crack the bars. Such cracks are generally longitudinal, but not necessarily straight. They can be quite long, and usually vary in depth along their length.

Shrinkage cracks can occur in castings due to stresses caused by the metal contracting as it cools and solidifies.
c. Primary Processing Flaws. Flaws which occur while working the metal down by hot or cold deformation into useful shapes such as bars, rods, wires, and forged shapes are primary processing flaws. Casting and welding are also considered primary processes although they involve molten metal, since they result in a semi-finished product. The following are brief descriptions of some primary processing flaws:

Seams are surface flaws, generally long, straight, and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the material, which can originate from ingot blowholes and cracks, or be introduced by drawing or rolling processes.

Laminations are formed in rolled plate, sheet, or strip when blowholes or internal fissures are not welded tight during the rolling process and are enlarged and flattened into areas of horizontal discontinuities.

Flakes are internal ruptures that can occur in metal as a result of cooling too rapidly. Flaking generally occurs deep in a heavy section of metal. Certain alloys are more susceptible to flaking than others.

Forging laps are the result of metal being folded over and forced into the surface, but not welded to form a single piece. They can be caused by faulty dies, oversized dies, oversized blanks, or improper handling of the metal in the die. They can occur on any area of the forging.

Forging bursts are internal or external ruptures that occur when forging operations are started before the material to be forged reaches the proper temperature throughout. Hotter sections of the forging blank tend to flow around the colder sections causing internal bursts or cracks on the surface. Too rapid or too severe a reduction in a section can also cause forging bursts or cracks.

A hot tear is a pulling apart of the metal that can occur in castings when the metal contracts as it solidifies.
Cupping is a series of internal metal ruptures created when the interior metal does not flow as rapidly as the surface metal during drawing or extruding processes. Segregation in the center of a bar usually contributes to the occurrence.
A cold shut is a failure of metal to fuse. It can occur in castings when part of the metal being poured into the mold cools and does not fuse with the rest of the metal into a solid piece.

Incomplete weld penetration is a failure of the weld metal to penetrate completely through a joint before solidifying.
Incomplete weld fusion occurs in welds where the temperature has not been high enough to melt the parent metal adjacent to the weld.

Weld undercutting is a decrease in the thickness of the parent material at the toe of the weld caused by welding at too high a temperature.

Cracks in the weld metal can be caused by the contraction of a thin section of the metal cooling faster than a heavier section or by incorrect heat or type of filler rod. They are one of the more common types of flaws found in welds.
Weld crater cracks are star shaped cracks that can occur at the end of a weld run.

Cracks in the weld heat-affected zone can occur because of stress induced in the material adjacent to the weld by its expansion and contraction from thermal changes.

A slag inclusion is a nonmetallic solid material that becomes trapped in the weld metal or between the weld metal and the base metal.

Scale is an oxide formed on metal by the chemical action of the surface metal with oxygen from the air.
d. Secondary Processing or Finishing Flaws. This category includes those flaws associated with the various finishing operations, after the part has been rough-formed by rolling, forging, casting or welding. Flaws may be introduced by heat treating, grinding, and similar processes. The following are brief descriptions of some secondary processing or finishing flaws.

Machining tears can occur when working a part with a dull cutting tool or by cutting to a depth that is too great for the mate rial being worked. The metal does not break away clean, and the tool leaves a rough, tom surface which contains numerous short discontinuities that can be classified as cracks.

Heat treating cracks are caused by stresses setup by unequal heating or cooling of portions of a part during heat treating opera tions. Generally, they occur where a part has a sudden change of section that could cause an uneven cooling rate, or at fillets and notches that act as stress concentration points.

Grinding cracks are thermal type cracks similar to heat treating cracks and can occur when hardened surfaces are ground. The overheating created by the grinding can be caused by the wheel becoming glazed so that it rubs instead of cutting the surface; by using too little coolant; by making too heavy a cut; or by feeding the material too rapidly. Generally, the cracks are at right angles to the direction of grinding and in severe cases a complete network of cracks can appear. Grinding cracks are usually shallow and very sharp at their roots, which makes them potential sources of fatigue failure.

Etching cracks can occur when hardened surfaces containing internal residual stresses are etched in acid.
Plating cracks can occur when hardened surfaces are electroplated. Generally. they are found in areas where high residual stresses remain from some previous operation involving the part.

e. In-Service Flaws. These flaws are formed after all fabrication has been completed and the aircraft. engine, or related component has gone into service. These flaws are attributable to aging effects caused by either time, flight cycles. service operating conditions, or combinations of these effects. The following are brief descriptions of some in-service flaws.

Stress corrosion cracks can develop on the surface of parts that are under tension stress in service and are also exposed to a cor rosive environment, such as the inside of wing skins, sump areas, and areas between two metal parts of faying surfaces.

Overstress cracks can occur when a part is stressed beyond the level for which it was designed. Such overstressing can occur as the result of a hard landing, turbulence, accident, or related damage due to some unusual or emergency condition not anticipated by the designer, or because of the failure of some related structural member.
Fatigue cracks can occur in parts that have been subjected to repeated or changing loads while in service, such as riv eted lap joints in aircraft fuselages. The crack usually starts at a highly-stressed area and propagates through the section until failure occurs. A fatigue crack will start more readily where the design or surface condition provides a point of stress concentration. Common stress concentration points are: fillets; sharp radii; or poor surface finish, seams, or grinding cracks.

Unbonds, or disbonds, are flaws where adhesive attaches to only one surface in an adhesive-bonded assembly. They can be the result of crushed, broken, or corroded cores in adhesive-bonded structures. Areas of unbonds have no strength and place additional stress on the surrounding areas making failure more likely.

Delamination is the term used to define the separation of composite material layers within a monolithic structure. Ultrasonic testing is the primary method used for the detection of delamination in composite structures.

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Welding is the process of fusion of two metal surfaces together by heating them in a forge. Welds made with good forge are really strong and delicate, and it’s very hard to detect the welding mark with the naked eye. Welding is useful for a wide spectrum of industries due to the distinct properties that this process can alone offer.

There are different types of welding. Each welding process is distinct in application and properties. There are varieties like arc welding, gas welding, and plasma welding. To suit the application, any of these welding processes may be selected. It is found that carbon dioxide could not be used alone because of the high plasma back, so combinations of gases are employed in gas welding. Welding is useful in joining beams when constructing buildings, bridges, and other structures, and pipes in nuclear power plants and refineries.

Lincoln Electric Company is a leader in offering do-it-yourself welding projects. Ornamental entry gates, snow blowers, wheel chair ramps, ice fishing coops, and metal sculptures could be constructed using Lincoln welding equipment. Zena’s mobile welding equipment can fit into trucks, emergency vehicles, forklifts, construction equipment, watercraft, and lawn tractors/mowers.

Diamond Ground Products, Inc. is one of the major manufacturers in welding supplies with operations in the U.S., Canada, and the United Kingdom. They specialize in tungsten arc welding products and electrodes. Torch Mate CNC cutting systems give hypothermic plasma systems, which are more accurate than the regular plasma process. CNC retrofit kits, CNC rout, plasma cutter, and software are the specialty products of Applied Robotics Incorporation, which markets its products under the trademark Torch Mate CNC Cutting Systems.

The welding tools came from painstaking research. The training and expertise needed to operate the welding equipments is essential to get welding jobs. The machining processes as well as the welding processes are useful in different sectors like aeronautics, machine tooling for vehicles, surgical tooling, rails, steel and iron furniture, shipbuilding, domestic product manufacturing, and structural engineering. The precision-based CNC grinding and welding is ruling the world of welding. Technical institutions offer courses to train the operations and the methodology of the computerized process. There is good demand for them. Persons who aspire to take up a career in welding can best utilize the crash courses and workshops on CNC cutting and welding.

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The combination of a low weight chassis, a long body and a 9.1 metre reach crane on a new DAF 18 tonner is bringing increased flexibility to the delivery operations of the leading independent builders' merchant

The truck makes up to 15 drops a day of a wide range of building materials from bagged sand and aggregates, to bricks, blocks and hard landscaping materials.

The 5.85 metre wheelbase LF55 is fitted with a 6.63 metre long double-dropside body capable of carrying up to 12 pallets or one tonne dumpy' bags. Sitting right at the back of the truck is an Atlas 105/A2 crane that has a reach of up to 9.1 metres.

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The installation kits and guides for car stereo systems are handy and helpful not only for beginners but also for those who want to try their hand in doing small repairs or remodeling.

Installation may mean adding new features or replacing the stock audio system. You can customize the stock audio system of your car by replacing the stereo, speakers and amplifier with those of your choice.

Before actually starting the installation task, double-check that you are in ready possession of the needed tools, like screwdrivers, wire stripper, crimper, wiring ties, butt splices, the dash bit, etc. In some cases, you may require an antenna adapter. These are readily available with your stereo retailer.

The best way to install your car speakers, stereos, amplifiers etc is to follow the instructions given in the instruction manual. Every car has a specific model of audio system. So, plan what best you can install in your vehicle.

In most cars, the front speakers are preferably round, while the rear speakers are oval. It is better if you choose to retain same stock location for speakers, to avoid breaking the door panel or the retaining dips in case of removing speakers installed in doors.

Basically, car stereo installation includes radio installation, front speaker, rear end speaker installation and the selection of equipment.

You can upgrade your car stereo system and install equipment with better features. For example, you can choose a head unit with remote control and a rigid face.

The head unit is the mostly likely part that is upgraded whenever there is any new arrival in the market. After all, the speakers and stereos determine the quality of sound produced.

Some of the other components which are upgraded in a high-end car stereo are amplifiers, alternators, cables, audio processors, woofer enclosure, equalizers, DVD, navigation etc.

You need to constantly upgrade the alternators according to your vehicle’s current capability in terms of the electrical system. If you want to install very large audio systems in your car, then you may need loads of batteries to control fluctuations in current flow and thereby enjoy your favorite music for longer periods. You would not run out of power.

In the US, to assist you in high-end or custom car stereo installations, there are a couple of learning centers, namely The Syntec Technical School and Mobile Dynamics.

If music is your passion, then install an audio system perfectly suited to your car and listen to your favorite music endlessly.

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I think many of us with vehicles seriously overestimate or underestimate what we could tow with it. You might look at a boat, utility trailer, or travel trailer and ask yourself “I wonder if my car could handle that?”

Now where would you go for that kind of information? Most people would go straight to the owner’s manual of their car. The problem is, the information in that manual will be so watered down and generic that you can’t really trust it.

It’s going to say something like this: “towing capacities are calculated under the assumption of a standard equipped vehicle, normal driver, and trailers. Any other equipment or passengers will reduce the amount of weight your vehicle can handle.”

Huh? So how on earth can you evaluate your real towing capacity? The first thing you have to understand the vehicle manufacturer is using a completely stripped down version of the car or truck to beef up the towing rating. Makes sense right?

They’re trying to sell cars, and if you’re a family with a tent trailer, seeing a super high towing rating on that little station wagon could be the factor that gets you to buy. That’s why you need to bring a skeptical eye to that owner’s manual.

The last thing you want is to load up your trailer with a few quads or motorcycles, head up to the mountains, and then have your transmission go out because you trusted the manufacturer’s published towing capacity. That could be a very expensive getaway.

Here are some terms you want to be familiar with in evaluating your actual towing capacity:

Unloaded Vehicle Weight (UVW)
You know all those times you’re headed down the interstate near the border of the state you’re entering or leaving? One of the best ways to find out your unloaded vehicle weight is to stop at one of them, pay the $5 or $10 fee, and have them weigh your car or truck.

If you do stop at one of those weigh stations, try to have your gas tank as full as possible to make the measurement more accurate.

Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR)
This is the maximum weight your tow vehicle can be without wrecking your car, truck, or suv. There are a few places you might find this number – it might be under the hood in the engine compartment, or on a sticker in a door frame, or maybe even in the owner’s manual. It’s important to know this number because the foundation for safe towing is not attempting to pull something that is just too heavy for your car.

The bottom line when towing is not to overdo it. When you buy a vehicle, if you know it’s going to be used for towing, be realistic about the capacity of the car or truck you’re buying.

The lightweight family sedan you’re buying is probably not intended to pull a 20 foot boat, or a large travel trailer. If you know you’re going to be doing lots of traveling, camping, RVing, and other recreation, be honest about what type of tow vehicle you’re going to need.

I would recommend buying a solid 8 cylinder engine with a transmission calibrated for heavy duty jobs. I would rather overkill on the vehicle than risk doing thousands of dollars in damage to my car or my trailer. Not to mention the people I’m sharing the road with.

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